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This page was machine-translated from German. German original version

Sources

Our explanations are simplified summaries of publications by professional associations, public authorities, research institutions and cell manufacturers.

  1. VDE (German Association for Electrical, Electronic and Information Technologies): FAQ Batterien [FAQ on batteries]. Link
  2. Umweltbundesamt (German Environment Agency): Lithium-Batterien und Lithium-Ionen-Akkus (Umwelttipps für den Alltag) [Lithium batteries and lithium-ion rechargeable batteries – everyday environmental tips]. Link
  3. Umweltbundesamt (German Environment Agency): Sachgemäßer Umgang mit Lithium-Batterien und -Akkus [Proper handling of lithium batteries and rechargeable batteries]. Link
  4. Fraunhofer IIS: Batteriemanagementsysteme [Battery management systems] (product sheet). Link
  5. C. Kairies: Batteriealterung [Battery ageing]. Lecture, Paderborn University, 2019. Link
  6. Panasonic: specification of the NCR18650B lithium-ion cell (“Do not directly solder to the battery”, connection by spot welding) and Sanyo/Panasonic Safety Data Sheet SDS-IBT-00026 (2018). Link
  7. M. J. Brand, P. A. Schmidt, M. F. Zaeh, A. Jossen: Welding techniques for battery cells and resulting electrical contact resistances. Journal of Energy Storage 1 (2015) 7–14. doi:10.1016/j.est.2015.04.001 Link
  8. Manufacturer data for the cells: LG (INR18650-MJ1, -M29, -M26/M26S, INR18650-HE2), Sony/Murata (US18650VTC4, VTC5, VTC6), Panasonic NCR18650PF and Axcom Sub-C (YT2000SCP, YT3000SCP), as technical examples; Molicel INR21700-P45B; Samsung INR21700-50E; Lithium Werks ANR26650M1B; LiFePO4 cell IFR32700 (retailer data). Link
  9. UL (Underwriters Laboratories): Counterfeit Batteries eGuide. Link
  10. J. Jeevarajan: Limitations of Internal Protective Devices in High-Voltage/High-Capacity Batteries Using Lithium-Ion Cylindrical Commercial Cells. NASA NESC Technical Bulletin 09-02, 2009. Link
  11. Lumafield: Battery Quality Report – CT analysis of 1,054 cells in 18650 format (2025). Link
  12. Manufacturer data: Shimano BT-E8035 and BT-E6010 (bike.shimano.com); Bosch PowerTube 500/750 (according to Canyon product pages); Makita BL1850B (according to RS Components). Link
  13. Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung (DGUV, German Social Accident Insurance): DGUV Information 205-041 “Brandschutz beim Umgang mit Lithium-Ionen-Batterien” [Fire protection when handling lithium-ion batteries], edition February 2024, sections 4.2 (p. 20: heat input during contacting) and 4.3 (p. 23: do not tamper with or “repair” the battery). Link

Further sources in the glossary

  • American Chemical Society / PubMed Central: In Situ Optical Fiber Sensing of Internal Temperature Evolution during Lithium-Ion Battery Cycling (Zeng et al.), ACS Omega, DOI 10.1021/acsomega.5c07124, 2025. Link
  • American Chemical Society / PubMed Central: Overcoming the Energy vs Power Dilemma in Commercial Li-Ion Batteries via Sparse Channel Engineering (Kim et al.), DOI 10.1021/acsenergylett.4c01727, 2024. Link
  • Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz / Gewerbeaufsicht Bayern: Merkblatt Sondervorschrift 188 (SV 188), Stand April 2025. Link
  • Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung (DGUV): DGUV Information 205-041: Brandschutz beim Umgang mit Lithium-Ionen-Batterien, Abschnitt 6.1, Februar 2024. Link
  • E-One Moli Energy Corp. (Molicel): INR-18650-P28A – Produktdaten, abgerufen Oktober 2026. Link
  • E-One Moli Energy Corp. (Molicel): INR-21700-P42A – Produktdaten, abgerufen Oktober 2026. Link
  • Energizer Battery Manufacturing Inc.: Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Handbook and Application Manual, Version NiMH02.01, ©2010. Link
  • Europäisches Parlament und Rat der EU (EUR-Lex): Verordnung (EU) 2023/1542, Artikel 3 Nr. 50, 2023. Link
  • Fraunhofer-Einrichtung Forschungsfertigung Batteriezelle (FFB): The cell designs by Fraunhofer FFB, Blogbeitrag 2023, abgerufen Oktober 2026. Link
  • International Air Transport Association (IATA): Battery Guidance Document (Revised for the 2026 Regulations), Definitionen, Stand 01.01.2026. Link
  • International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC): IEC 62133-2:2017+AMD1:2021 CSV – Safety requirements for portable sealed secondary cells … Part 2: Lithium systems, Erstausgabe 2017-02-07, konsolidiert mit Amendment 1 (2021). Link
  • Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) / Springer Nature: Comprehensive battery aging dataset: capacity and impedance fade measurements of a lithium-ion NMC/C-SiO cell (Luh, Blank; KIT) – Scientific Data, DOI 10.1038/s41597-024-03831-x, 2024. Link
  • MDPI / PubMed Central: Cause and Mitigation of Lithium-Ion Battery Failure—A Review (Kaliaperumal et al.), DOI 10.3390/ma14195676, 2021. Link
  • MDPI / PubMed Central: Comparison of Several Methods for Determining the Internal Resistance of Lithium Ion Cells (Schweiger et al.), DOI 10.3390/s100605604, 2010. Link
  • MDPI / PubMed Central: Fabrication of Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) as Anode Material for Li-Ion Batteries (Julien, Mauger), Micromachines 15(3):310, DOI 10.3390/mi15030310, 2024. Link
  • MDPI / PubMed Central: Individual Cell-Level Temperature Monitoring of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack (Alcock et al.), Sensors 23(9):4306, DOI 10.3390/s23094306, 2023. Link
  • Springer Nature: Extreme fast charging of commercial Li-ion batteries via combined thermal switching and self-heating approaches (Zeng et al.), Nature Communications, DOI 10.1038/s41467-023-38823-9, 2023. Link
  • Springer Nature / PubMed Central: A study of the influence of measurement timescale on internal resistance characterisation methodologies for lithium-ion cells (Barai et al.), Scientific Reports 8:21, DOI 10.1038/s41598-017-18424-5, 2018. Link
  • Springer Nature / PubMed Central: Optimized Multi-Stepped constant current constant voltage fast charging controller for lithium-ion batteries (Magdy et al.), Scientific Reports, DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-25924-2, 2025. Link
  • The Electrochemical Society / IOP Publishing: Calendar Aging of Lithium-Ion Batteries: I. Impact of the Graphite Anode on Capacity Fade (Keil et al.; TU München), JES 163(9):A1872, DOI 10.1149/2.0411609jes, 2016. Link
  • The Electrochemical Society / IOP Publishing: Enhanced Fast Charging and Reduced Lithium-Plating by Laser-Structured Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries (Habedank et al.; TU München), DOI 10.1149/2.1241915jes, 2019. Link
  • The Electrochemical Society / IOP Publishing: Review—SEI: Past, Present and Future (Peled, Menkin), Journal of The Electrochemical Society 164(7):A1703, DOI 10.1149/2.1441707jes, 2017. Link
  • Umweltbundesamt (UBA): Sachgemäßer Umgang mit Lithium-Batterien und -Akkus unerlässlich, zuletzt aktualisiert 24.10.2023. Link